# MICHELE LOI - AI ETHICS & BUSINESS CONSULTANCY

> AI ETHICS EXPERT, BUSINESS CONSULTANT AND REASEARCH LEADER Business astute and accomplished professional with extensive experience in high-profile data ethics projects, providing evidence to companies and public institutions, and publishing books, articles and chapters on AI fairness, transparency, trust, data protection, privacy, and cybersecurity.


## Posts

- [The Journal of Prompt-Engineered Philosophy Or: How I Started to Track AI Assistance and Stopped Worrying About Slop](https://micheleloi.pro/the-journal-of-prompt-engineered-philosophy-or-how-i-started-to-track-ai-assistance-and-stopped-worrying-about-slop/)
- [Epistemic Constitutionalism Or: how to avoid coherence bias](https://micheleloi.pro/epistemic-constitutionalism-or-how-to-avoid-coherence-bias/)
- [Evidence Without Injustice: A New Counterfactual Test for Fair Algorithms](https://micheleloi.pro/evidence-without-injustice-a-new-counterfactual-test-for-fair-algorithms/)
- [Profiling vs. Case-specific Evidence: A Probabilistic Analysis](https://micheleloi.pro/profiling-vs-case-specific-evidence-a-probabilistic-analysis/)
- [Causal Equal Protection as Algorithmic Fairness](https://micheleloi.pro/causal-equal-protection-as-algorithmic-fairness/)
- [Group Fairness Is Not Derivable From Justice: a Mathematical Proof](https://micheleloi.pro/group-fairness-is-not-derivable-from-justice-a-mathematical-proof/)
- [Governing the Epistemic Commons in the Age of AI](https://micheleloi.pro/governing-the-epistemic-commons-in-the-age-of-ai/): We share an infrastructure for knowing whom to trust. It consists of signals, heuristics, and institutions that help us distinguish reliable communication from noise: credentials, track records, the coherence of arguments, the effort visible in careful work. This infrastructure is a commons—a shared resource that no one owns but everyone depends upon. Like any commons, […]
- [Slides — “The Journal of Prompt-Engineered Philosophy (JPEP)”](https://micheleloi.pro/slides-the-journal-of-prompt-engineered-philosophy-jpep/): TU/e Philosophy & Ethics seminar • 2026-01-06 • Michele Loi TL;DR (3 bullets): The problem: disclosure creates a transparency paradox (where transparency matters most, we get least). The proposal: mandatory transparency + dual-review workflow. The method: reproduction testing via trajectory-matching (not output matching). Download PDF Download PPTX Links: [2511.08639] The Journal of Prompt-Engineered Philosophy Or: […]
- [Lecture on Trust in the age of LLMs](https://micheleloi.pro/lecture-on-trust-in-the-age-of-llms/):     [Picture generated by Chat GPT 5.1 thinking based on the contents of the talk. Transparency declaration on the use of AI: Claude Sonnet 4.5 for planning (and some headings/bulletpoint text that survived in the final text, visible here), ML for first draft, Chat GPT 5.1 for polishing (typos, reference format, etc). Bold=linking and […]
- [User-Claude Sonnet 4.5 dialogue to structure the lecture on Trust in the Age of LLMs](https://micheleloi.pro/user-claude-sonnet-4-5-dialogue-to-structure-the-lecture-on-trust-in-the-age-of-llms/): M Help me to plan a 1 h frontal lecture on AI TRUST. Here are the themes I will be touching, suggest 4 different structures Sperber’s notion of reasons Mercier’s theory of the two evolved functions of reasons Highlight the connection between reasons and social functions Concept of costly signalling Concept of honest signalling Focus […]
- [Regulating the Undefined: Addressing Systemic Risks in the Digital Services Act (with an Appendix on the AI Act)](https://micheleloi.pro/regulating-the-undefined-addressing-systemic-risks-in-the-digital-services-act-with-an-appendix-on-the-ai-act/): The European Union’s Digital Services Act requires very large online platforms and search engines providers to assess and mitigate systemic risks. However, regulators and providers both face a fundamental challenge we refer to as the ‘convergence problem’—the inherent difficulty of achieving methodological and definitional agreement across diverse approaches investigating systemic risks. To address this challenge, […]
- [The representative individuals approach to fair machine learning](https://micheleloi.pro/the-representative-individuals-approach-to-fair-machine-learning/): The demands of fair machine learning are often expressed in probabilistic terms. Yet, most of the systems of concern are deterministic in the sense that whether a given subject will receive a given score on the basis of their traits is, for all intents and purposes, either zero or one. What, then, can justify this […]
- [Beyond the AI Con: Why LLMs Can Reason and Why That's the Real Danger](https://micheleloi.pro/beyond-the-ai-con-why-llms-can-reason-and-why-thats-the-real-danger/): A response to Tyler Austin Harper’s Atlantic article: “What Happens When People Don’t Understand How AI Works” The Flawed Comparison Tyler Austin Harper’s recent article in The Atlantic, “What Happens When People Don’t Understand How AI Works,” makes a bold claim: large language models (LLMs) “do not, cannot, and will not ‘understand’ anything at all.” […]
- [When "I Don't Know" Is the Right Answer: How Humans and AI Generate Hallucination from Noise](https://micheleloi.pro/when-i-dont-know-is-the-right-answer-how-humans-and-ai-generate-hallucination-from-noise/): The Universal Human Tendency to Hallucinate We all hallucinate. Not clinically, but cognitively. The human brain is a pattern-recognition machine that abhors uncertainty. When faced with incomplete information or pure noise, it doesn’t simply report “insufficient data” – it generates patterns. This isn’t a bug but a feature. Our ancestors who quickly “saw” predators in […]
- [Human Alignment: The Missing Half of AI Ethics](https://micheleloi.pro/human-alignment-the-missing-half-of-ai-ethics/): The Other Side of the Alignment Problem While technologists and ethicists frantically work to align artificial intelligence with human values, we’ve overlooked an equally crucial question: How should humans properly align themselves with AI? This isn’t merely a question of learning new tools or adapting to technological change. It’s about something deeper—determining what aspects of […]
- [Beyond Techno-Solutionism: Why Algorithmic Fixes Cannot Solve the Crisis of Reliable Information](https://micheleloi.pro/beyond-techno-solutionism-why-algorithmic-fixes-cannot-solve-the-crisis-of-reliable-information/):   The dominant approach to addressing information reliability in digital society focuses on technological interventions: tweaking recommendation algorithms, labeling misinformation, promoting “authoritative” sources, and implementing fact-checking systems. This techno-solutionist framework misdiagnoses the fundamental problem and proposes remedies that cannot address the deeper social transformations at work. The Techno-Solutionist Misdiagnosis Techno-solutionism frames information reliability primarily as […]
- [Beyond the Agent: Reconsidering AI Alignment in Socioeconomic Systems](https://micheleloi.pro/beyond-the-agent-reconsidering-ai-alignment-in-socioeconomic-systems/): Alignment requires that systems involving AI contribute to human flourishing according to human values and intentions across all timescales. We might expand our view beyond individual AI systems’ goals and behaviors. The Overlooked Alignment Problem No single AI behaves deceptively in this scenario. Yet collectively, they create systemic deception. AI systems become embedded within economic […]
- [Production note for Rethinking Social Media: What Video Games Can Teach Us About Pro-Social Interaction](https://micheleloi.pro/production-note/): In this post, Claude (Sonnet 3.7) has been used to: brainstorm about viewing social media websites as the gamification of social interaction developing the analogy in more details building an effective dichotomy. I then decided to use the voices of Cory Doctorow and Seth Goodin for rethoric effect, to stress the dichotomy further and asked Claude […]
- [Rethinking Social Media: What Video Games Can Teach Us About Pro-Social Interaction](https://micheleloi.pro/rethinking-social-media-what-video-games-can-teach-us-about-pro-social-interaction/): We’ve built massive online attention competitions disguised as social platforms. That’s not necessarily a criticism—it’s simply what market forces selected for. Platforms that effectively capture and maintain attention thrive; those that don’t, disappear. The Social Game We’re Playing Think about it: social media platforms function remarkably like games. They feature: Clear reward systems (likes, shares, […]
- [Eugenics, AGI, and the Pseudo-Scientific Urgency](https://micheleloi.pro/eugenics-agi-and-the-pseudo-scientific-urgency/): History doesn’t repeat, but it often rhymes. The current discourse around Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) bears unsettling similarities to another technological movement that promised to solve humanity’s problems: eugenics. Both wrapped ideological aims in scientific language, both created a false sense of competitive urgency, and both justified concentrated power through pseudo-scientific metrics. The Scientific Veneer […]
- [The AI Race and the Dollar Auction Paradox: Is the "Winner-Takes-All" Narrative Serving US?](https://micheleloi.pro/the-ai-race-and-the-dollar-auction-paradox-is-the-winner-takes-all-narrative-serving-us/): Just read a fascinating interview with Marco Trombetti (CEO of Translated) that perfectly illustrates the economic trap we’re falling into with AI investment – one that might be entirely by design. Trombetti describes the current AI landscape with a telling phrase: “Gli investitori sono terrorizzati… e esaltati” (Investors are terrified… and excited). Why? Because they’ve […]
- [One Essential Contemporary Philosophy Insight for Evaluating AI: The Nature of Reasons](https://micheleloi.pro/one-essential-contemporary-philosophy-insight-for-evaluating-ai-the-nature-of-reasons/): A dialogue between Motivus and Normativus on the evaluation of the use of Large Language Models through reasons. Production note Motivus: I hear you’ve been advocating that we should evaluate generative AI systems based on the reasons they provide for their outputs. But surely this approach is fundamentally flawed? Normativus: Why do you say that? […]
- [Production note for One Essential Contemporary Philosophy Insight for Evaluating AI: The Nature of Reasons](https://micheleloi.pro/production-note-for-one-essential-contemporary-philosophy-insight-for-evaluating-ai-the-nature-of-reasons/): This philosophical dialogue was entirely generated by Claude 3.5 Sonnet, an Anthropic AI model, in response to the following prompt: “I now want to develop a new post, that is related to this, but also fully independent (there will be no link, but hopefully you see the connection). This post will be in the form […]
- [A Paradigm Shift in AI Ethics: From Reliability to Reason](https://micheleloi.pro/a-paradigm-shift-in-ai-ethics-from-reliability-to-reason/): A Paradigm Shift in AI Ethics: From Reliability to Reason After a year of deep reflection on the emergence of generative AI, I’ve come to recognize a fundamental shift in how we must approach AI ethics and trustworthiness. This insight, while profound in its implications, can be distilled to a simple contrast between two paradigms: […]
- [Socratic Search Through LLMs](https://micheleloi.pro/socratic-search-through-llms/): Introduction Socratic Search is a method for philosophical investigation through natural dialogue with Large Language Models. The framework consists of eighteen dialogue moves inspired by elements of classical philosophical discourse, allowing for structured yet fluid conversation between human and machine. The dialogue form shows promise as a way to explore philosophical questions. LLMs can engage […]
- [Fair equality of chances for prediction-based decisions.](https://micheleloi.pro/fair-equality-of-chances-for-prediction-based-decisions/): This article presents a fairness principle for evaluating decision-making based on predictions: a decision rule is unfair when the individuals directly impacted by the decisions who are equal with respect to the features that justify inequalities in outcomes do not have the same statistical prospects of being benefited or harmed by them, irrespective of their […]
- [How much do you trust me? A logico-mathematical analysis of the concept of the intensity of trust.](https://micheleloi.pro/how-much-do-you-trust-me-a-logico-mathematical-analysis-of-the-concept-of-the-intensity-of-trust/): Trust and monitoring are traditionally antithetical concepts. Describing trust as a property of a relationship of reliance, we introduce a theory of trust and monitoring, which uses mathematical models based on two classes of functions, including q-exponentials, and relates the levels of trust to the costs of monitoring. As opposed to several accounts of trust […]
- [How I Would have been Differently Treated. Discrimination Through the Lens of Counterfactual Fairness.](https://micheleloi.pro/how-i-would-have-been-differently-treated-discrimination-through-the-lens-of-counterfactual-fairness/): The widespread use of algorithms for prediction-based decisions urges us to consider the question of what it means for a given act or practice to be discriminatory. Building upon work by Kusner and colleagues in the field of machine learning, we propose a counterfactual condition as a necessary requirement on discrimination. To demonstrate the philosophical […]
- [Fairness and Risk: An Ethical Argument for a Group Fairness Definition Insurers Can Use](https://micheleloi.pro/fairness-and-risk-an-ethical-argument-for-a-group-fairness-definition-insurers-can-use/): Algorithmic predictions are promising for insurance companies to develop personalized risk models for determining premiums. In this context, issues of fairness, discrimination, and social injustice might arise: Algorithms for estimating the risk based on personal data may be biased towards specific social groups, leading to systematic disadvantages for those groups. Personalized premiums may thus lead […]
- [The Fair Chances in Algorithmic Fairness: A Response to Holm](https://micheleloi.pro/the-fair-chances-in-algorithmic-fairness-a-response-to-holm/): Holm (Res Publica, 2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11158-022-09546-3) argues that a class of algorithmic fairness measures, that he refers to as the ‘performance parity criteria’, can be understood as applications of John Broome’s Fairness Principle. We argue that the performance parity criteria cannot be read this way. This is because in the relevant context, the Fairness Principle requires […]
- [Towards Rawlsian ‘property-owning democracy’ through personal data platform cooperatives.](https://micheleloi.pro/towards-rawlsian-property-owning-democracy-through-personal-data-platform-cooperatives/): This paper supports the personal data platform cooperative as a means of bringing about John Rawls’s favoured institutional realisation of a just society, the property-owning democracy. It describes personal data platform cooperatives and applies Rawls’s political philosophy to analyse the institutional forms of a just society in relation to the economic power deriving from aggregating […]
- [Highway to (Digital) Surveillance: When Are Clients Coerced to Share Their Data with Insurers?](https://micheleloi.pro/highway-to-digital-surveillance-when-are-clients-coerced-to-share-their-data-with-insurers/): Clients may feel trapped into sharing their private digital data with insurance companies to get a desired insurance product or premium. However, private insurance must collect some data to offer products and premiums appropriate to the client’s level of risk. This situation creates tension between the value of privacy and common insurance business practice. We […]
- [The Robustness of Counterfactual Explanations Over Time.](https://micheleloi.pro/the-robustness-of-counterfactual-explanations-over-time/): Counterfactual explanations are a prominent example of post-hoc interpretability methods in the explainable Artificial Intelligence (AI) research domain. Differently from other explanation methods, they offer the possibility to have recourse against unfavourable outcomes computed by machine learning models. However, in this paper we show that retraining machine learning models over time may invalidate the counterfactual […]
- [How to fairly incentivise digital contact tracing.](https://micheleloi.pro/how-to-fairly-incentivise-digital-contact-tracing/): Digital apps using Bluetooth to log proximity events (henceforth, digital contact tracing) are increasingly supported by technologists and governments. By and large, the public debate on this matter focuses on privacy, with experts from both law and technology offering very concrete proposals and participating to a lively debate. Far less attention is paid to effective […]
- [Transparency as design publicity: Explaining and justifying inscrutable algorithms.](https://micheleloi.pro/transparency-as-design-publicity-explaining-and-justifying-inscrutable-algorithms/): In this paper we argue that transparency of machine learning algorithms, just as explanation, can be defined at different levels of abstraction. We criticize recent attempts to identify the explanation of black box algorithms with making their decisions (post-hoc) interpretable, focusing our discussion on counterfactual explanations. These approaches to explanation simplify the real nature of […]
- [Choosing how to discriminate: Navigating ethical trade-offs in fair algorithmic design for the insurance sector.](https://micheleloi.pro/choosing-how-to-discriminate-navigating-ethical-trade-offs-in-fair-algorithmic-design-for-the-insurance-sector/): Here, we provide an ethical analysis of discrimination in private insurance to guide the application of non-discriminatory algorithms for risk prediction in the insurance context. This addresses the need for ethical guidance of data-science experts, business managers, and regulators, proposing a framework of moral reasoning behind the choice of fairness goals for prediction-based decisions in […]
- [In AI We Trust Incrementally: A Multi-layer Model of Trust to Analyze Human-Artificial Intelligence Interactions.](https://micheleloi.pro/in-ai-we-trust-incrementally-a-multi-layer-model-of-trust-to-analyze-human-artificial-intelligence-interactions/): Real engines of the artificial intelligence (AI) revolution, machine learning (ML) models, and algorithms are embedded nowadays in many services and products around us. As a society, we argue it is now necessary to transition into a phronetic paradigm focused on the ethical dilemmas stemming from the conception and application of AIs to define actionable […]
- [Trust does not need to be human: It is possible to trust medical AI.](https://micheleloi.pro/trust-does-not-need-to-be-human-it-is-possible-to-trust-medical-ai/)
- [The Digital Phenotype: A Philosophical and Ethical Exploration.](https://micheleloi.pro/the-digital-phenotype-a-philosophical-and-ethical-exploration/): The concept of the digital phenotype has been used to refer to digital data prognostic or diagnostic of disease conditions. Medical conditions may be inferred from the time pattern in an insomniac’s tweets, the Facebook posts of a depressed individual, or the web searches of a hypochondriac. This paper conceptualizes digital data as an extended […]
- [Cybersecurity in health – disentangling value tensions.](https://micheleloi.pro/cybersecurity-in-health-disentangling-value-tensions/): Purpose Cybersecurity in healthcare has become an urgent matter in recent years due to various malicious attacks on hospitals and other parts of the healthcare infrastructure. The purpose of this paper is to provide an outline of how core values of the health systems, such as the principles of biomedical ethics, are in a supportive […]
- [Nobody’s DNA but mine.](https://micheleloi.pro/nobodys-dna-but-mine/): I am grateful to the respondents (and the journal editors) for the opportunity provided, to clarify the concept of a libertarian right to test (LRT in what follows) and its normative implications. To sum up, I concede that genomes have a normatively salient informational aspect, that exercising the LRT may cause informational harm and violate […]
- [Digital medicine, cybersecurity and ethics: An uneasy relationship.](https://micheleloi.pro/digital-medicine-cybersecurity-and-ethics-an-uneasy-relationship/)
- [If Data is the New Oil, When Is The Extraction of Value From Data Unjust.](https://micheleloi.pro/if-data-is-the-new-oil-when-is-the-extraction-of-value-from-data-unjust/): To say that “data is the new oil” is already an abused commonplace. What are the implications for justice? In our contribution, we argue that if data is the new oil, the extraction of value from data is unjust if it is achieved by means of dominant internet platforms that are unjust. We define the […]
- [Ethical sharing of health data in online platforms – which values should be considered?](https://micheleloi.pro/ethical-sharing-of-health-data-in-online-platforms-which-values-should-be-considered/): Intensified and extensive data production and data storage are characteristics of contemporary western societies. Health data sharing is increasing with the growth of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) platforms devoted to the collection of personal health and genomic data. However, the sensitive and personal nature of health data poses ethical challenges when data is disclosed […]
- [Genuine participation in participant-centred research initiatives: The rhetoric and the potential reality](https://micheleloi.pro/genuine-participation-in-participant-centred-research-initiatives-the-rhetoric-and-the-potential-reality/): The introduction of Web 2.0 technology, along with a population increasingly proficient in Information and Communications Technology (ICT), coupled with the rapid advancements in genetic testing methods, has seen an increase in the presence of participant-centred research initiatives. Such initiatives, aided by the centrality of ICT interconnections, and the ethos they propound seem to further […]
- [Direct to consumer genetic testing and the libertarian right to test.](https://micheleloi.pro/direct-to-consumer-genetic-testing-and-the-libertarian-right-to-test/): This paper discusses the concept of “human disenhancement”, i.e. the worsening of human individual abilities and expectations through technology. The goal is provoking ethical reflection on technological innovation outside the biomedical realm, in particular the substitution of human work with computer-driven automation. According to some widely accepted economic theories, automatization and computerization are responsible for […]
- [Prenatal Equality of Opportunity.](https://micheleloi.pro/prenatal-equality-of-opportunity/): In this article, we defend a normative theory of prenatal equality of opportunity, based on a critical revision of Rawls’s principle of fair equality of opportunity (FEO). We argue that if natural endowments are defined as biological properties possessed at birth and the distribution of natural endowments is seen as beyond the scope of justice, […]
- [Technological unemployment and human disenhancement.](https://micheleloi.pro/technological-unemployment-and-human-disenhancement/): This paper discusses the concept of “human disenhancement”, i.e. the worsening of human individual abilities and expectations through technology. The goal is provoking ethical reflection on technological innovation outside the biomedical realm, in particular the substitution of human work with computer-driven automation. According to some widely accepted economic theories, automatization and computerization are responsible for […]
- [Epigenetics and Future Generations](https://micheleloi.pro/epigenetics-and-future-generations/): Recent evidence of intergenerational epigenetic programming of disease risk broadens the scope of public health preventive interventions to future generations, i.e. non existing people. Due to the transmission of epigenetic predispositions, lifestyles such as smoking or unhealthy diet might affect the health of populations across several generations. While public policy for the health of future […]
- [Food Labels, Genetic Information, and the Right Not to Know.](https://micheleloi.pro/food-labels-genetic-information-and-the-right-not-to-know/): Many people believe that individuals have a right not to know their genetic disease risk. Here it is argued that, if this is correct, individuals also have a right not to know their diet-related disease risk. Reasons to remain ignorant are analogous in the case of risk related to diet and genetic susceptibilities. It follows […]
- [Why Postnatal Abortion Throws the Baby out with the Bath Water.](https://micheleloi.pro/why-postnatal-abortion-throws-the-baby-out-with-the-bath-water/): This paper articulates a careful and detailed objection to the moral permissibility of postnatal abortion. Giubilini and Minerva (2012) claim that if being unable to nurture one’s newborn child without significant burdens to oneself, family or society, is a proper moral ground for the demand that the life of a fetus be terminated, then ‘after-birth […]
- [Social Epigenetics and Equality of Opportunity.](https://micheleloi.pro/social-epigenetics-and-equality-of-opportunity/): Recent epidemiological reports of associations between socioeconomic status and epigenetic markers that predict vulnerability to diseases are bringing to light substantial biological effects of social inequalities. Here, we start the discussion of the moral consequences of these findings. We firstly highlight their explanatory importance in the context of the research program on the Developmental Origins […]
- [Normal Functioning and Public Reason.](https://micheleloi.pro/normal-functioning-and-public-reason/)
- [You cannot have your normal functioning cake and eat it too.](https://micheleloi.pro/you-cannot-have-your-normal-functioning-cake-and-eat-it-too/)
- [Germ-line Enhancements and Rough Equality.](https://micheleloi.pro/germ-line-enhancements-and-rough-equality/): This paper argues that human germ-line biomedical enhancements (such as those that may be enabled by the application of CRISPR/CAS9 technology to human embryos) should be regulated in the name of preventing the inter-generational transmission and amplification of extreme socio-economic inequality. The protection of a background condition of “rough equality” trumps any justification provided by […]
- [Introduction: Genetics and Justice.](https://micheleloi.pro/introduction-genetics-and-justice/): This paper argues that human germ-line biomedical enhancements (such as those that may be enabled by the application of CRISPR/CAS9 technology to human embryos) should be regulated in the name of preventing the inter-generational transmission and amplification of extreme socio-economic inequality. The protection of a background condition of “rough equality” trumps any justification provided by […]
- [On the Very Idea of Genetic Justice.](https://micheleloi.pro/on-the-very-idea-of-genetic-justice/): Innovations in science and technology are often the source of public concern, but few have generated debates as intense and at the same time with such a popular fascination as those surrounding genetic technologies. Unequal access to preimplantation diagnosis could give some individuals the opportunity to select children with more advantageous predispositions.
- [-----------BLOG-----](https://micheleloi.pro/blog/)
- [How Explainability Contributes to Trust in AI.](https://micheleloi.pro/how-explainability-contributes-to-trust-in-ai/): We provide a philosophical explanation of the relation between artificial intelligence (AI) explainability and trust in AI, providing a case for expressions, such as “explainability fosters trust in AI,” that commonly appear in the literature. This explanation relates the justification of the trustworthiness of an AI with the need to monitor it during its use. […]
- [People are not coins: Morally distinct types of predictions necessitate different fairness constraints](https://micheleloi.pro/people-are-not-coins-morally-distinct-types-of-predictions-necessitate-different-fairness-constraints/): In a recent paper [1], Brian Hedden has argued that most of the group fairness constraints discussed in the machine learning liter- ature are not necessary conditions for the fairness of predictions, and hence that there are no genuine fairness metrics. This is proven by discussing a special case of a fair prediction. In our […]
- [Is calibration a fairness requirement?: An argument from the point of view of moral philosophy and decision theory](https://micheleloi.pro/is-calibration-a-fairness-requirement-an-argument-from-the-point-of-view-of-moral-philosophy-and-decision-theory/): In this paper, we provide a moral analysis of two criteria of statistical fairness debated in the machine learning literature: 1) calibration between groups and 2) equality of false positive and false negative rates between groups. In our paper, we focus on moral arguments in support of either measure. The conflict between group calibration vs. […]
- [Towards Accountability in the Use of Artificial Intelligence for Public Administrations.](https://micheleloi.pro/towards-accountability-in-the-use-of-artificial-intelligence-for-public-administrations/): We argue that the phenomena of distributed responsibility, induced acceptance, and acceptance through ignorance constitute instances of imperfect delegation when tasks are delegated to computationally-driven systems. Imperfect delegation challenges human accountability. We hold that both direct public accountability via public transparency and indirect public accountability via transparency to auditors in public organizations can be both […]
- [On the Moral Justification of Statistical Parity.](https://micheleloi.pro/on-the-moral-justification-of-statistical-parity/): A crucial but often neglected aspect of algorithmic fairness is the question of how we justify enforcing a certain fairness metric from a moral perspective. When fairness metrics are proposed, they are typically argued for by highlighting their mathematical properties. Rarely are the moral assumptions beneath the metric explained. Our aim in this paper is […]
- [A Comparative Assessment and Synthesis of Twenty Ethics Codes on AI and Big Data](https://micheleloi.pro/a-comparative-assessment-and-synthesis-of-twenty-ethics-codes-on-ai-and-big-data/): Up to date, more than 80 codes exist for handling ethical risks of artificial intelligence and big data. In this paper, we analyse where those codes converge and where they differ. Based on an in-depth analysis of 20 guidelines, we identify three procedural action types (1. control and document, 2. inform, 3. assign responsibility) as […]
- [A Moral Framework for Understanding Fair ML Through Economic Models of Equality of Opportunity.](https://micheleloi.pro/a-moral-framework-for-understanding-fair-ml-through-economic-models-of-equality-of-opportunity/): We map the recently proposed notions of algorithmic fairness to economic models of Equality of opportunity (EOP)—an extensively studied ideal of fairness in political philosophy. We formally show that through our conceptual mapping, many existing definition of algorithmic fairness, such as predictive value parity and equality of odds, can be interpreted as special cases of […]
- [Towards an Ethical Code for Data-Based Business.](https://micheleloi.pro/towards-an-ethical-code-for-data-based-business/): In this paper, we outline the structure and content of a code of ethics for companies engaged in data-based business, i.e. companies whose value propositions strongly depends on using data. The code provides an ethical reference for all people in the organization who are responsible for activities around data. It is primarily targeting private industry, […]
- [Transparency As Design Publicity: Explaining and Justifying Inscrutable Algorithms](https://micheleloi.pro/transparency-as-design-publicity-explaining-and-justifying-inscrutable-algorithms-2/): In this paper we argue that transparency, just as explanation, can be defined at different levels of abstraction. We criticize recent attempts to identify the explanation of black box algorithms with making their decisions (post-hoc) interpretable. These approaches simplify the real nature of the black boxes and risk misleading the public about the normative features […]
- [What Contribution Can Philosophy Provide to Studies of Digital Well-Being](https://micheleloi.pro/what-contribution-can-philosophy-provide-to-studies-of-digital-well-being/): In the utilitarian tradition, well-being is conceived as what is ultimately (non-instrumentally) good for a person. Since the right is defined as a function of the good, and well-being is conceived as the good, well-being is also considered as an input to moral theory that is not itself shaped by prior moral assumptions and provides […]
- [Cybersecurity of critical infrastructure](https://micheleloi.pro/cybersecurity-of-critical-infrastructure/): This chapter provides a political and philosophical analysis of the values at stake in ensuring cybersecurity for critical infrastructures. It presents a review of the boundaries of cybersecurity in national security, with a focus on the ethics of surveillance for protecting critical infrastructures and the use of AI. A bibliographic analysis of the literature is […]
- [Ethical and unethical hacking](https://micheleloi.pro/ethical-and-unethical-hacking/): The goal of this chapter is to provide a conceptual analysis of ethical hacking, comprising history, common usage and the attempt to provide a systematic classification that is both compatible with common usage and normatively adequate. Subsequently, the article identifies a tension between common usage and a normatively adequate nomenclature. ‘Ethical hackers’ are often identified […]
- [Ethical Frameworks for Cybersecurity](https://micheleloi.pro/ethical-frameworks-for-cybersecurity/): This chapter presents several ethical frameworks that are useful for analysing ethical questions of cybersecurity. It begins with two frameworks that are important in practice: the principlist framework employed in the Menlo Report on cybersecurity research and the rights-based principle that is influential in the law, in particular EU law. It is argued that since […]
- [Food Ethics in an Intergenerational Perspective](https://micheleloi.pro/food-ethics-in-an-intergenerational-perspective/): The dominant controversy in food policy arguably revolves around an ideological conflict between supporters and opponents of state interference with individual liberty in the realm of food choices. According to public health scholars, effective policies against obesity involve obesity monitoring and extensive political interference with market freedom in the food sector. The all-encompassing scope of […]
- [The Moral and Legal Relevance of DOHaD Effects for Pregnant Mothers](https://micheleloi.pro/the-moral-and-legal-relevance-of-dohad-effects-for-pregnant-mothers/): This essay considers moral and legal arguments concerning mothers who intentionally or negligently harm their fetuses. It focuses on some potentially problematic implications of developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) theories. While the legal case for criminalizing women appears weak, it seems that sound arguments can be constructed for treating harm to fetuses as […]
- [Singolarità nanotecnologiche e problemi di giustizia distributiva](https://micheleloi.pro/singolarita-nanotecnologiche-e-problemi-di-giustizia-distributiva/): Lo sviluppo delle nanotecnologie e la loro commercializzazione, in settori che vanno dal manifatturiero al tessile, dalla cosmesi alla medicina, dall’elettronica all’automotive, all’industria aerospaziale, hanno conosciuto in questi ultimi anni un’accelerazione senza precedenti. Ciò si intreccia alla ricerca in campi particolarmente innovativi, quali quello dell’ingegneria tissutale e della biologia sintetica; aree della conoscenza che nascono […]
- [The Ethics of Cybersecurity](https://micheleloi.pro/the-ethics-of-cybersecurity/): This open access book provides the first comprehensive collection of papers that provide an integrative view on cybersecurity. It discusses theories, problems and solutions on the relevant ethical issues involved. This work is sorely needed in a world where cybersecurity has become indispensable to protect trust and confidence in the digital infrastructure whilst respecting fundamental […]
- [Etica e genetica. Storia, concetti, pratiche](https://micheleloi.pro/etica-e-genetica-storia-concetti-pratiche/): L’avvento della genetica e delle sue applicazioni è forse la rivoluzione medica e sociale più profonda lasciataci in eredità dal Novecento. I test diagnostici, le modificazioni del genoma di intere generazioni, la possibilità non solo di curare gli individui ma di potenziare le capacità umane sono solo la superficie di un mutamento che ha radici […]
- [Giustizia e genetica](https://micheleloi.pro/giustizia-e-genetica/): Gli sviluppi futuri della scienza, che permetteranno la modifica del corredo genetico personale, aprono questioni fondamentali, sinora poco discusse, sul tema della giustizia sociale. Di queste si occupa ora il volume di Michele Loi, che dopo aver introdotto l’idea di enhancement umano e genetico (il miglioramento delle caratteristiche normali del genoma), affronta le teorie della […]
- [How to define platforms’ systemic risks to democracy](https://micheleloi.pro/how-to-define-platforms-systemic-risks-to-democracy/): It remains unclear how the largest platforms and search engines should go about identifying “systemic risks” to comply with the DSA. AlgorithmWatch outlines a methodology that will serve as a benchmark for how we, as a civil society watchdog, will judge the risk assessments that are being conducting at this very moment.
- [A Justice-Based Framework for the Analysis of Algorithmic Fairness-Utility Trade-Offs](https://micheleloi.pro/a-justice-based-framework-for-the-analysis-of-algorithmic-fairness-utility-trade-offs/): In prediction-based decision-making systems, different perspectives can be at odds: The short-term business goals of the decision makers are often in conflict with the decision subjects’ wish to be treated fairly. Balancing these two perspectives is a question of values. However, these values are often hidden in the technicalities of the implementation of the decision-making […]
- [Distributive Justice as the Foundational Premise of Fair ML: Unification, Extension, and Interpretation of Group Fairness Metrics](https://micheleloi.pro/distributive-justice-as-the-foundational-premise-of-fair-ml-unification-extension-and-interpretation-of-group-fairness-metrics/): Group fairness metrics are an established way of assessing the fairness of prediction-based decision-making systems. However, these metrics are still insufficiently linked to philosophical theories, and their moral meaning is often unclear. In this paper, we propose a comprehensive framework for group fairness metrics, which links them to more theories of distributive justice. The different […]
- [Automated Decision-Making Systems in the Public Sector – An Impact Assessment Tool for Public Authorities](https://micheleloi.pro/automated-decision-making-systems-in-the-public-sector-an-impact-assessment-tool-for-public-authorities/): This tool, developed with AlgorithmWatch and AlgorithmWatch Switzerland, provides a practical framework for evaluating automated decision-making systems (ADMS) in public administration. Now in its fourth version (updated January 2025), it consists of two parts: a triage checklist to determine which systems require a transparency report, and an adaptive accountability and transparency reporting section. The tool […]
- [People Analytics must benefit the people. An ethical analysis of data-driven algorithmic systems in human resources management](https://micheleloi.pro/people-analytics-must-benefit-the-people-an-ethical-analysis-of-data-driven-algorithmic-systems-in-human-resources-management/): In his study, Michele Loi of the Institute for Biomedical Ethics and History of Medicine at the University of Zurich develops recommendations on how systems for automated HR management can be used in an ethically responsible manner.
- [The societal and ethical relevance of computational creativity](https://micheleloi.pro/the-societal-and-ethical-relevance-of-computational-creativity/): In this paper, we provide a philosophical account of the value of creative systems for individuals and society. We characterize creativity in very broad philosophical terms, encompassing natural, existential, and social creative processes, such as natural evolution and entrepreneurship, and explain why creativity understood in this way is instrumental for advancing human well-being in the […]
- [Code of Ethics for Data-Based Value Creation—Basics](https://micheleloi.pro/code-of-ethics-for-data-based-value-creation-basics/): The “Code of Ethics for Data-Based Value Creation” is aimed at companies and organizations that offer services or products based on data. Its purpose is to systematically address the ethical issues that arise in the creation or use of such products and services. To this end, concrete recommendations are made, based on three ethical and […]
- [Canvas White Paper 1 – Cybersecurity and Ethics](https://micheleloi.pro/canvas-white-paper-1-cybersecurity-and-ethics/): This White Paper outlines how the ethical discourse on cybersecurity has developed in the scientific literature, which ethical issues gained interest, which value conflicts are discussed, and where the “blind spots” in the current ethical discourse on cybersecurity are located. The White Paper is based on an extensive literature with a focus on three reference […]
- [Guidance For Managing Ethical Issues In Infectious Disease Outbreaks.](https://micheleloi.pro/guidance-for-managing-ethical-issues-in-infectious-disease-outbreaks/): Infectious disease outbreaks are frequently characterized by scientific uncertainty, social and institutional disruption, and an overall climate of fear and distrust. Policy makers and public health professionals may be forced to weigh and prioritize potentially competing ethical values in the face of severe time and resource constraints. This document seeks to assist policy-makers, health care […]

## Pages

- [MHC-G (English)](https://micheleloi.pro/en/mhc-g/): MHC-G MEANINGFUL HUMAN CONTROL FOR CLAUDE COWORK Five conversational rules to keep you in control while AI works on your files. Install now → BEFORE YOU START Claude Desktop — the desktop app from Anthropic (free) A paid Claude plan — Pro, Max, Team, or Enterprise(Cowork is not available on the free plan) Nothing else. […]
- [English](https://micheleloi.pro/en/)
- [MHC-G](https://micheleloi.pro/mhc-g/): MHC-G Controllo umano significativo per Claude Cowork Cinque regole conversazionali per restare in controllo mentre l’AI lavora con i tuoi file. Installa ora → Prima di iniziare Claude Desktop — l’app desktop di Anthropic (gratuita) Un piano Claude a pagamento — Pro, Max, Team o Enterprise(Cowork non è disponibile con il piano gratuito) Nient’altro. Nessuna […]
- [RegIA](https://micheleloi.pro/regia/): RegIA Il layer di governance per l’AI professionale L’AI lavora. Tu decidi. Come funziona → Usare l’AI professionalmente significa essere responsabile per ogni output. Usi ChatGPT o Claude per lavoro. L’AI produce — ma tu firmi. Il confine tra “l’ha suggerito l’AI” e “ho deciso io” è sempre più sfocato. Quando qualcosa va storto, chi […]
- [Working Papers](https://micheleloi.pro/working-papers/): Working papers
- [Complete Bio Michele Loi](https://micheleloi.pro/complete-bio-michele-loi/): a few words about myself ~~A distinguished technology ethics expert combining rigorous academic research with practical policy impact in AI governance and digital rights.~~ I wrote this when I thought using LLMs to condense my CV made sense… So, let’s start again, and try to make this in a way that doesn’t bore myself.I want […]
- [COLLABORATION: UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH](https://micheleloi.pro/collaboration-university-of-zurich/): UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH Digital Society Initiative The Digital Society Initiative (DSI) shapes the digital transformation of society and science. It is the University of Zurich’s (UZH) competence center for digital transformation. select project to read more Consortium for Value-Driven Cybersecurity FHP Fair Predictions in Health project 1: One Stop Shop Ethics Review Project Focus The […]
- [COLLABORATION: EUROPEAN UNION’S HORIZON 2020 RESEARCH AND INNOVATION PROGRAMME](https://micheleloi.pro/collaboration-european-unions-horizon-2020/): EUROPEAN UNION’S HORIZON 2020 RESEARCH AND INNOVATION PROGRAMME Horizon 2020 was the EU’s funding programme for research and innovation, with nearly €80 billion of funding available over 7 years (2014 to 2020). Horizon 2020 copuled research and innovation, and had an emphasis on excellent science, industrial leadership and tackling societal challenges. select project to read […]
- [COLLABORATION: SWISS INNOVATION AGENCY](https://micheleloi.pro/collaboration-swiss-innovation-agency/): SWISS INNATION AGENCY In close collaboration with higher education institutions and other partners, the SNSF strives to create the best possible conditions for the development and global interconnectedness of Swiss research. It pays particular attention to the promotion of early-career researchers. In addition, it accepts evaluation mandates to help ensure that large third-party-funded research initiatives […]
- [COLLABORATION: SWISS NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION](https://micheleloi.pro/collaboration-swiss-national-science-foundation/): SWISS NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION In close collaboration with higher education institutions and other partners, the SNSF strives to create the best possible conditions for the development and global interconnectedness of Swiss research. It pays particular attention to the promotion of early-career researchers. In addition, it accepts evaluation mandates to help ensure that large third-party-funded research […]
- [COLLABORATION: HEALTH CATALYST](https://micheleloi.pro/collaboration-health-catalyst/): HEALTH CATALYST Health Catalyst is a leading provider of data and analytics technology and services to healthcare organizations, committed to being the catalyst for massive, measurable, data-informed healthcare improvement. select project to read more ASSESSMENT TOOL FOR PUBLIC AUTHORITIES using ai report on ai ethics in the hr field project 1: Auditing of automated decision-making/algorithmic/AI-based […]
- [COLLABORATION: RAREMARK](https://micheleloi.pro/collaboration-raremark/): RAREMARK Raremark, part of Xperiome, is the place for the lived experience of rare diseases. Raremark supports every stage of a patient’s health odyssey: a community to crowdsource wisdom, a library to catalogue the lived experience, and a matching engine to find research opportunities. This data-driven knowledge bank of the rare experience allows us to […]
- [COLLABORATION: ALGORITHMWATCH](https://micheleloi.pro/collaboration-algorithmwatch/): AlgorithmWatch  AlgorithmWatch is a human rights organization based in Berlin and Zurich. We fight for a world where algorithms and Artificial Intelligence (AI) do not weaken justice, democracy, and sustainability, but strengthen them. select project to read more ASSESSMENT TOOL FOR PUBLIC AUTHORITIES using ai report on ai ethics in the hr field project 1: Auditing […]
- [COLLABORATION: INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES COLLABORATIONS](https://micheleloi.pro/international-agencies-collaborations/): VARIOUS COLLABORATIONS WITH INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL AGENCIES I have been invited to serve as an expert by the following national and international institutions: OECD (Ethics of AI in the workplace) Centre for Data Ethics and Innovation (CDEI Data Reform Workshop) Digital Economy Secretariat, European Commission Joint Research Centre (Peer-learning workshop on the use and impact of AI in the public […]
- [COLLABORATION: WHO](https://micheleloi.pro/collaboration-who-world-health-orginanization/): World health orgAnization Founded in 1948, WHO is the United Nations agency that connects nations, partners and people to promote health, keep the world safe and serve the vulnerable – so everyone, everywhere can attain the highest level of health.  WHO leads global efforts to expand universal health coverage. We direct and coordinate the world’s […]
- [BLOG](https://micheleloi.pro/blog/): Blog FAIR ALGORITHM CODE ETHICS DIGITALISATION
- [COLLABORATION: MIDATA COOPERATIVE](https://micheleloi.pro/collaboration-midata-cooperative/): MIDATA COOPERATIVE Founded in 2015, the nonprofit cooperative operates a data platform, acts as a trustee for data collection and guarantees the sovereignty of citizens over the use of their data. At present, MIDATA focuses on health data and smartphone app based services. Startups, IT providers and research groups can connect mobile apps to the […]
- [FPH: FAIR PREDICTIONS IN HEALTH CARE​](https://micheleloi.pro/fph-fair-predictions-in-health-care/): FPH: Fair Predictions in Health Care Summary of the context and overall objectives of the project 1) Problem/Issue Being Addressed  Diagnostic disparities exist when predictive algorithms are used in medical contexts. For instance, a certain cancer might be misdiagnosed differently among men and women due to a consistent algorithmic threshold. Similarly, limited data from ethnic […]
- [REPORTS](https://micheleloi.pro/reports/): rEPORTS ETHICAL CODES ALGORITHMIC AUDITING PLATFORM AUDITING ETHICAL ANALYSIS Select a report category, then click on a report to read more ETHICAL CODES Algorithmic auditing Platformauditing Ethical analysis ETHICAL CODE REPORTS ALGORITHMIC AUDITING REPORTS​ PLATFOM AUDITING REPORTS ETHICAL ANALYSIS REPORTS
- [ACADEMIC PUBLICATIONS](https://micheleloi.pro/academic-publications/): ACADEMIC publications ARTICLES IN INTERNATIONAL JOURNALS BUSINESS REPORTS CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS BOOK CHAPTERS BOOKS WORKING PAPERS Select a publication category, then click on a publication to read more journals reports PROCEEDINGS BOOKS CHAPTERS W. PAPERS Journal articles CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS books book chapters BUSINESS reports WORKING PAPERS
- [COLLABORATIONS](https://micheleloi.pro/collaborations/): PARTNERSHIPS & COLLABORATIONS INDUSTRY CIVIL SOCIETY ACADEMIC GOVERNMENTAL INDUSTRY & CIVIL SOCIETY COLLABORATIONS ACADEMIC & GOVERNMENTAL COLLABORATIONS INDUSTRY & CIVIL SOCIETY COLLABORATIONS MIDATA COOPERATIVE COLLABORATION PROJECT:  THE MIDATA ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION VIEW PROJECTS ALGORITHMWATCH COLLABORATION PROJECTS: IMPACT ASSESSMENT TOOL FOR PUBLIC AUTHORITIES THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE EMERGING ETHICS OF AI FOR THE USE OF AI […]
- [BIO & CONTACTS](https://micheleloi.pro/bio-contacts/): MICHELE LOI AI ETHICS EXPERT, BUSINESS CONSULTANT AND RESEARCH LEADER Michele Loi is a philosopher and AI governance specialist based in Milan. He works at the intersection of ethical theory and operational practice — helping organizations design systems where humans remain accountable for what AI produces. He is Adjunct Professor at the University of Milan, […]
- [HOME](https://micheleloi.pro/): MICHELE LOI AI ETHICS EXPERTBUSINESS CONSULTANTRESEARCH LEADER REQUEST A CONSULTATION ENTER WEBSITE industry, governament and civil society collaborations VIEW ALL COLLABORATIONS RESEARCH & consultancy AREAS TRANSPARENCY IN ALGORITHMIC APPLICATIONS What makes an inscrutable algorithm defensible — and when does it just need to be opened up? My work on transparency focuses on making AI systems […]


[comment]: # (Generated by Hostinger Tools Plugin)